Sikh Period | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Sikh Period: 1762-1849 A.D. The Sikhs established their Empire in the Punjab after the death of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir in 1707. With the death of Aurangzeb the country saw a series of rapid governmental changes that stressed it in to the depths of anarchy. Taking advantage of this certain Charat Singh, who was the head of one of the Sikh Clans, established his stronghold in Gujranwala in 1763. Charat Singh died in 1774 and was succeeded by his son, Mahan Singh, who in turn fathered the most brilliant leader in the history of the Punjab: Maharaja Ranjit Singh. It was this remarkable leader who united the whole Punjab under one flag. His rule stretched from the banks of the Jamuna to the Khyber and from Kashmir to Multan. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the most powerful of all the Sikh Rulers and ruled over for complete 40 years. After his death in 1840 the Sikh Empire was divided into small principalities looked after by several Sikh Jagirdars. This weak situation provided a good opportunity to the British of East India Company to put an end to the Sikh strong hold in the Punjab in 1849.
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||
 Birth Stone of Rangit Singh | |||||||||||||||||||||||
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||
Monday, August 28, 2006
The Sikh Period in Punjab
Indus and Gandhara Civilizations
Indus Civilization
This land also witnessed the glorious era of Indus civilization about 8000 years B.C when the first village was found at Mehargarh in the Sibi District of Balochistan comparable with the earliest villages of Jericho in Palestine and Jarmo in Iraq. Here, during the last decade i.e., 1980’s, the French and Pakistani archaeologists have excavated mud built houses of the Mehargarh people and their agricultural land known for the cultivation of maize and wheat, together with polished stone tools, beads and other ornaments, painted jars and bowls, drinking glasses, dishes and plates.
The archaeologists believe that by 7000 B.C., the Mehargarh people learnt to use the metal for the first time. From the first revolution of agricultural life the man moved to another great revolution in his social, cultural and economic life. He established trade relations with the people of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Iran and the Arab world. He not only specialized in painting different designs of pottery, made varieties of pots and used cotton and wool but also made terracotta figurines and imported precious stones from Afghanistan and Central Asia. This early bronze age Culture spread out in the countryside of Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab and North West Frontier Province of Pakistan.
This early beginning led to the concentration of population into the small towns, such as Kot Diji in Sindh and Rahman Dheri in Dera Ismail Khan district. It is this social and cultural exchange that led to the rise of the famous cities of Moenjodaro and Harappa, with largest concentration of population including artisans, craftsmen, businessmen and rulers.This culminated in the peak of the Indus Civilization which was primarily based on intensively irrigated agricultural land and overseas trade and contact with Iran, Gulf States, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Dames were built for storing river water, land was cultivated by means of bullock-harnessed plough - a system which still prevails in Pakistan, granaries for food storage were built, furnace was used for controlling temperature for
Indus Seal of Bull
making red pottery and various kinds of ornaments, beads of carnelian, agate, and terracotta were pierced through and above all they traded their finished goods with Central Asia and Arab world. It is these trade dividends that enriched the urban populace who developed a new sense of moral honesty, discipline and cleanliness combined with a social stratification in which the priests and the mercantile class dominated the society. The picture of high civilization can be gathered only by looking at the city of Moenjodaro, the First Planned City in the World, in which the streets are aligned straight, parallel to each other with cross streets cutting at right angles. It is through these wide streets that wheeled carriages, drawn by bulls or asses, moved about, carrying well-adorned persons seated on them appreciating the closely aligned houses made of pucca-bricks, all running straight along the streets. And then through the middle of the streets ran stone dressed drains covered with stone slabs - a practice of keeping the streets clean from polluted water, seen for the first time in the world.
Gandhara Civilization
Pakistan is the land which attracted Alexander the great from Macedonia in 326 B.C., with whom the influence of Greek culture came to this part of the world. During the 2nd century B.C., it was here that Buddhism was adopted as the state religion which flourished and prevailed here for over 1000 years, starting from 2nd century B.C., until 10th century A.D. During this time Taxila, Swat and Charsaddah (old Pushkalavati) became three important centres for culture, trade and learning. Hundreds of monasteries and stupas were built together with Greek and Kushan towns such as Sirkap and Sirsukh both in Taxila. It was from these centres that a unique art of sculpture originated which is known as Gandhara Art all over the world. Today the Gandhara Sculptures occupy a prominent place in the museums of England, France, Germany, USA, Japan, Korea, China, India and Afghanistan together with many private collections world over, as well as in the museums of Pakistan. Nevertheless, the zenith of this Gandhara Art is one and only "Fasting Buddha" now on display in Lahore Museum, Lahore.
Finally, the light of Islam penetrated in this part of the world as early as 7th century AD. from the west with the Arabs and during the 10th century AD from the north with the Turks. Islam replaced the early way of life of worshipping idols and introduced new philosophy of faith in one God. With Islam in came a new culture in this land from Arabia and Central Asia. Hence, a new type of architecture, hitherto unknown in this area, was introduced. Tens of thousands of Mosques, Madrassahs, tombs and gardens were created by the Muslim rulers all over the Sub-Continent. The new style of Islamic architecture prevailed and matured in this land for over a thousand years. The most important contribution of the Muslim rulers to this land, however, is a new language ‘Urdu’ which became the national language of Pakistan since its independence in 1947.
History of Pakistan
History of Pakistan
Pakistan, the Indus land, is the child of the Indus in the same way as Egypt is the gift of Nile. The Indus has provided unity, fertility, communication, direction and the entire landscape to the country. Its location marks it as a great divide as well as a link between central Asia and south Asia. But the historical movements of the people from Central Asia and South Asia have given to it a character of its own and have established closer relation between the people of Pakistan and those of Central Asia in the field of culture, language, literature, food, dress, furniture and folklore. However, it is the Arabian Sea that has opened the doors for journey beyond to the Arabian world through the Gulf and Red Sea right into the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia and Egypt. It is this Sea voyage that gave to the Indus Land its earliest name of Meluhha because the Indus people were characterized as Malahha (Sailor) in the Babylonian records. It is for this reason that the oldest civilization of this land, called Indus Civilization, had unbreakable bonds of culture and trade link with the Gulf States of Dubai, Abu Dabi, Sharja, Qatter, Bahrain and right from Oman to Kuwait. While a Meluhhan village sprang up in ancient Mesopotamia (Modern Iraq), the Indus seals, painted pottery, lapis lazuli and many other items were exchanged for copper, tin and several other objects from Oman and Gulf States. It is to facilitate this trade that the Indus writing was evolved in the same proto-symbolic style as the contemporary cuneiform writing of Mesopotamia. Much later in history it is the pursuit of this seaward trade that introduced Islam from Arabia in to Pakistan. The twin foundations of cultural link have helped build the stable edifice of Islamic civilization in this country. All these cultural developments are writ-large in the personality of the people of Pakistan.
As in many other countries of the world, man in Pakistan began with the technology of working on old stone by using quartzite and flint found in Rohri hills and stone pebbles found in the Soan Valley. The oldest stone tool in the world, going back to 2.2 million years old, has been found at Rabat, about fifteen miles away from Rawalpindi, thus breaking the African record. The largest hand Axe has also been found in the Soan Valley. Although man is still hiding in some corner, the Soan pebble stone age culture show a link with the Hissar Culture in Central Asia. Later about fifty thousand B.C. at Sangho Cave in Mardan District man improved his technology for working on Quartz in order to chase the animal in closed valleys. Still later he worked on micro quartz and chert or flint and produced arrows, knives, scrapers and blades and hunted the feeling deer and ibexes with bow and arrow. Such an hunting scene is well illustrated on several rock carvings, particularly near Chilas in the Northern Areas of Pakistan along the Karakorum Highway - a style of rock art so well known in the trans- Pamir region of Tajikistan and Kirghizstan. However, the first settled life began in the eight millennium B.C. when the first village was found at Mehergarh in the Sibi districts of Balochistan comparable with the earliest villages of Jericho in Palestine and Jarmo in Iraq. Here their mud houses have been excavated and agricultural land known for the cultivation of maize and wheat. Man began to live together in settled social life and used polished stone tools, made pots and pans, beads and other ornaments. His taste for decoration developed and he began to paint his vessels, jars, bowls, drinking glasses, dishes and plates. It was now that he discovered the advantage of using metals for his tools and other objects of daily use. For the first time in seventh millennium B.C. he learnt to use bronze. From the first revolution in his social, cultural and economic life. He established trade relation with the people of Turkamenistan, Uzbekistan, Iran and other Arab world.
He not only specialized in painting different designs on pottery, made varieties of pots and used cotton and wool but also made terracotta figurines and imported precious stones from Afghanistan and Central Asia. This early bronze age culture spread out in the country side of Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab and North West Frontier Province.
And this early beginning led to the concentration of population into small towns. Such as Kot-Diji in Sindh and Rehman Dheri in Dera Ismail Khan District. It is this social and Cultural change that led to the rise of the famous cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappra, the largest concentration of population including artisans, craftsman, businessmen and rulers. This culminated in the peak of the Indus Civilization, which was primarily based on intensive irrigated land agriculture and overseas trade and contact with Iran, Gulf States, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Dams were built for storing river water, land was Cultivated by means of bullock- harnessed plough - a system that still prevails in Pakistan, granaries for food storage were built, furnace were used for controlling temperature for making red pottery and various kinds of ornaments, beads of carnelian, agate and terracotta were pierced through, and above all they traded their finished goods with Central Asia and Arab world. It is these trade divided that enriched the urban populace who developed a new sense of moral honesty, discipline and cleanliness, and above all a social stratification in which the priests and the mercantile class dominated the society. The picture of high civilization can be gathered only by looking at the city of Mohenjodaro, the first planned city in the world, in which streets are aligned straight, parallels to each other, with a cross streets cutting at right angles. It is through these wide streets that wheeled carriages, drawn by bulls or asses, moved about, carrying well-adorned persons seated on them, appreciating the closely aligned houses, made of pucca bricks, all running straight along the streets. And then through the middle of the streets ran stone dressed drains covered with stone slabs - a practice of keeping the streets clean from polluted water, for the first time seen in the world.
The Indus Civilization is the first literate Civilization of the subcontinent. The cities were centres of art and craft. Where the artisan produced several kinds of goods that were exported to other countries. Sailing boats sailed out from Mohenjodaro and anchored in the port of the Gulf, which region was perhaps known as Dilmin. However, it was the city administration that managed the urban life in strict discipline and controlled the trade in their hands. The discipline is derived from the strict practice of meditation (yoga) that was practiced by the elite of the city, who appear to have trimmed their beard and hair combed and tied with golden fillets. The body was covered with a shawl bearing trefoil designs on them. Such a noble man with a sharp nose and long wish eyes shows a contrast with a bronze figurine of a dancing and singing girl, plying music with her fully bang led hand, as we find today with the Cholistan ladies having bangled hands. Obviously there were distinctive ethnic groups of people in Mohenjodaro but the dominant class of rulers and merchants appear to be distinctive from the rest of the population. It is these literate people who inter- acted with the Arabian people and continued to maintain strict discipline in the society. It is they who developed astronomy, mathematics, and science in the country along with numerical symbols, weights and measures but they thoroughly intermixed in the society and also believed in the local cult of tree and tree deities and animal totems. The most prominent animals as attested in the seals are bull, buffalo, elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, alligator and deer and ibexes. However, Mesopotamian influences are seen in the figures of Gilgamash, Enkidu, joint statue of the bull and man and other animals with several heads and bodies. However, the unique local concept is that of highly meditative man, seated in his heels, with three or four heads, and combining in himself the power to control the animals probably with a crown of horns or some times a tree overhead. It is this supreme deity, depicted on Seals, that draws the serpent worshippers and overpowers the animals. A part from these there was no concept of nature worship as we find in the Vedas of the Aryans. The ritual consisted of offerings through the intermediary of mythological composite animals to the tree deity. These dose not appear to have been any concept of animals sacrifice nor worship of any idol or idols. The Indus civilization lasted for nearly five hundred years and flourished up to 1750 B.C. when we notice the movements of nomadic tribes in Central Asia. As a result the Asian trade system was greatly disturbed. Consequently the trade and industry of the Indus people greatly suffered with the result that led to the end of the Civilization. The cities vanished, the noble lost their position. The writing finished. The common people met with the influx of new horse-riding pastoralists who hardly understood the system of irrigated agriculture and hence the value of dams. Such nomadic tribes are known from the large number of graves and their village settlements all over Swat, Dir and Bajaur right up to Taxila. In the Northern Areas of Pakistan different group of such tribes, known as Dardic people are known from their graves. The tribes of the plains are recognized as different groups of the Aryans from the hilly tribes of the North- the ancestors of the Kalash people and those who now speak Shina, Burushaski and other Kohistani languages. They had nothing to do with the cities as we find them building small villages nor did they know irrigation. Infect they believed in nature gods, one of them Indra destroyed the dams and spelled disaster on the local Dasyus who differed from them in colour, creed and language. These Aryans conquerors developed there own religion of the Vedas, practiced animal sacrifice and gradually built up tribal kingdoms all over the Indus Valley. The most prominent being that of Gandhara with capitals at Pushkalavati (modern Charsadda) and Taxila, the last having been the older capital of Takshaka, the king of serpent worshippers. Taksha-sila (a Sanskrit word, literally translated in to Persian Mari-Qila) survive in modern Margala. It become the strong hold of the Aryans, whose great epic book Mahabharata was for the first time recited here. Since that time Takshka-sila or Taxila lying on the western side of Margala remained the capital of the Indus land, which was called Sapta- Sindhu (the land of seven rivers) by the Aryans. It because of this central location, en routs from Central to South Asia that the new capital of Pakistan has been established at Islamabad on the eastern side of Margala hill , thus giving a historical link from the most ancient to modern time and new significance to Pakistan as a link between Central and South Asia.
The city of Taxila began to grow from 6th century B.C. onward when Achaemenian kings by name Cyrus and Darius joined this city by road and postal services with their own capital at Persepolis in Iran. Here one can see the Aryan village at Hatial mound lying above the pre-Aryan bronze age capital of Takshakas (Serpent worshippers). One can also visit the Achaemenian city at Bhir mound, where old bazaars and royal palace, with long covered drain, have been discovered. Land rout trade with Iran and the west once again started with the issue of coin currency for the first time in the Indus land. But the most important was the great use of iron technology, which produced several kind of iron tools, weapons and other objects of daily use as known as from the excavations at Taxila. Above all a new writing known as Kharoshti was developed here. At the same time the oldest University of the world was founded at Taxila, where taught the great grammarian Panini, born at the modern village of Lahur in Sawabi district of the Frontier Province. It is the basis of this grammar that modern linguistics has been developed. It is in this University that Chandra Gupta Maurya got his education, who later founded the first sub continental empire in South Asia. He developed the Mauryan city at Bhir mound in Taxila, where ruled his grandson, Ashoka, twice as governor. He introduced Buddhism in Gandhara and built the first Buddhist monastery, called Dharmarajika Vihara, at Taxila. Ashoka has left behind his Rock Edicts at two palaces, one at Mansehra and another at Shahbazgari, written in Kharoshti.
Long before the rise of Chandra Gupta Maurya the Achaemenian empire, that had extended from Pakistan to Greece and Egypt, had collapsed under the onslaught of Alexander of Macedonia. He first finished with the Greek city states, united the Greeks, and dashed forward to annex the Achaemenian empire and hence proceeded to all those places where the Achaemenian had ruled. In this march they come to Taxila in 326 B.C. where he was welcomed by the local king Ambhi in his palace at Bhir mound. It is here as well as at Bhira in Jhelum district that Alexander's remains can be seen. However, he fought the greatest battale on the bank of the Jhelum river opposite the present village of Jalalpur Sharif against Porus, the head of the heroic Puru tribe, whose descendents still supply military personal to the Pakistan army. Alexander's battle place was at Mong, where he founded a new city, called Nikea, the city of victory. The other city which he founded was called Bucaphela after the name of his horse that died here. However, the most captivating site is at Jalalpur Shaif, laying on the bank of rivulet Gandaria, perhaps Sikanaria, where Alexander's monument has now been built on the spot where he stopped for about two months before launching his attack on Porus.
The Achaemenian and Alexander's contacts with Pakistan are very important from the point of view of educational and Cultural history. The Achaemenian brought the learning and science of Mesopotamia Civilization that enriched the University of Taxila. They also introduced their administrative system here, on the basis of which the famous book on political science, called Arthasastra was written in Sanskrit language in Taxila by Kautilya, known as Chanakya, the teacher of Chandra Gupta Maurya. It is this book that was adapted for the administrative of the Mauryan empire. On the basis of Achaemenian currency the Mauryan punch marked coins. So well known in Taxila, were produced. It is their Aramaic writing, used by Achaemenian clerks, that led to the development of Kharoshti in Pakistan and trade with the Semitic world that created the Brahmi writing in India. On the other hand Alexander brought Greek knowledge and science to Taxila and introduced Greek type of coin currency. It is Taxila that philosophers and men of learning of the two countries met and developed science, mathematics and astronomy. Above all Alexander left behind large number of Greeks in Central Asia, who founded the Bactrian Greek kingdom in mid-third century B.C. it is the descendants of these Bactrian Greeks who later advanced in to Pakistan and built up the Greek kingdom here and built up their own city at Sirkap in Taxila. This is the second well planned city in Pakistan. The Greeks introduced their language, art and religion in the country of Gandhara, where ruled thirteen Greek kings and queens. Their language lasted more than five hundred years and their art and religion and considerable influence on the flourish of Gandhara Civilization.
This civilization was the result of interaction of several peoples who followed the Greeks, the Scythians, the Parthians and Kushans who came one the other from Central Asia along the Silk Road and integrated them selves into the local society. It is under their patronage that Buddhism evolved here into its new Mahayana form and this become the religion of the contemporary people in Pakistan. Under their encouragement the Buddhist monks moved along the Silk Road freely and carried this religion to central Asia, China, Korea and Japan. It is again the trade along the silk road that was particularly controlled by the Kushana emperors, who built a mighty empire with Peshawar as their Capital, the boundaries of which extended from the Aral Sea to the Arabian Sea and from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal. It is the dividends of trade that enriched Pakistan and led to the development of Gandhara Art, which mirrors the social, religious and common man's life of the time. It is an art that was blend of the Greek classical and local arts, which created the finest statues of Buddha and Buddhisatttvas that today decorate the museums all over the world. At the same time the sculpture depict the whole life of the Buddha in a manner that is unsurpassed. Many Greek themes, their gods, typical toilet trays, Greek life scenes showing musicians, drinking bouts and love making are presented in there natural fashion. The Kushanas period was the golden age of Pakistan as the Silk Road trade brought unparalleled prosperity to the people of the country.
The luxury items produced in the country enrich the museum at Taxila at that show the Cultural and trends of life of the time. Gandhara art is the high water achievement of the people of Pakistan. Mahayana Buddhism was the inspiring ideal of the time and the Buddhist stupas and monasteries survive in every nook and corner of the hills. It was this time that the country was known as Kushana-shahar, the land of the Kushanas, to which came the Romanships to carry the luxury goods in exchange for Roman Siler and Gold, that were used by the Kushana emperors and as a result their gold currency flooded the country and all along the Silk road. It is these Kushana kings who have gifted the national dress of shalwar and kamiz and sherwani to Pakistan. Their dress and decorations are deeply imprinted on the Indus land, that is now Pakistan.
Then came from Central Asia the Huns and the Turks who gave to Pakistan the present ethnic, their Culture, Food and Adab. The Jats, Gakkhars, Janjuas (Jouanjouan of the Chinese) and Gujars all trekked into Pakistan and made their home here. The Rajput rose and founded the feudal system in Punjab and Sindh in the same way the Pashtuns, who borrowed the surname of Gul and later the title of Khan from the Mongols, their Sardari system in Balochistan, and slowly developed the Wadera practice in the Indus delta region of Sindh. This feudal arrangements, which was the result of confederated tribes of the Huns, led to new administrative system in the country and created a new form of land management that has lasted until today. The tribes have fused into the agricultural society but their brotherhoods have survived and they have given a permanent character to Pakistan.
In the early eight Century A.D. the Arabs brought Islam in Sindh and Multan built up the kingdom of Al-Mansurah in Sindh. At the same time their east ward Sea trade introduced porcelain and called on were from China and popularized glass were from Iran Syria- new materials that can be seen in the excavations at Bambhore in Sindh. With the Muslims Turks came the Sufis and Dervishes from Central Asia. Iran and Afghanistan and they spread Islam all over the country. It is Sultan Mahamud of Ghazni who made Lahore- the city of Data Sahib as his second capital. However, the city of Multan become famous as the city of Saints although it lay en route the camel caravan that carried on trade between Pakistan and Central Asia right up to Baku in Azerbaijan. It is these cities that the famous Muslims monuments of old are to be seen. As a result of the Saintly activity Pakistan become a land of Islamic Civilization. In several villages and cities we now find the Dargah of these Muslims Saints. While Shahbaz Kalandar is a well known in Sindh, Baba Farid Shakarganj resided over Pak Pattan in Punjab, Buner Baba rules over the Frontier region, and Syed Ali Hamdani is the real Sufi Saint in Kashmir. The capital city of Islamabad enshrines the well known Golra Sharif and Barri Imam. It is in these Saints who influenced the development of Sufi literature in all the languages of Pakistan and their monumental tombs that attract the people from all the country. In the old city of Thatta at Makli hill several tombs and Mausoleums are spread over the place that surpass in the beauty of stone carving but much more than this they evidence the historical evolution of architecture from 12th century A.D. to the Mughal time.
This was a period of great change in the historical integration of the people in Pakistan when the country was brought closer to Central Asia and the Arab world. The mixing of several tribes from both these regions transformed the ethnic complex of the country. Just as in the period of Kushanas of Mahayana type rose here and the Buddhist monks out from this land along the Silk road to carry the massage of the Buddha, now it was the Arabs and the Muslims Saints from Central Asia who came in the reverse direction and flocked in the prosperous land of Pakistan. New trade route were opened in the reverse direction from those countries into the Indus land. From the Huns to the Turks the age of cavalry dominated the life scene. Many Rock carvings in Central Punjab show men riding, even standing on horse back and brandishing their swords and shooting arrows. Hence forward Polo game become common and sword dance was common, as seen in the Rock carving near Chilas. The foundation of Muslims state was firmly laid, in which the dominate position first occupied by the Arabs in Sindh and Multan and later by the Gaznavid and Ghorid Sultans who made the Indus country as their spring board from the onward conquest of India. A beautiful monument in memory of sultan Ghori can be seen at Suhawa on the National Highway. It was therefore in the fitness of things that the first missile made in Pakistan was named after Ghori. Several Muslims kingdoms grew up in this country. Beginning from north we find the Tarkhan ruling dynasty, who came from trans-pamir region here and become supreme in the Gilgit area. The descendent of Shah Mir founded the Muslims Sultanate in Kashmir maintained its independents until the time of the Mughal emperor Akbar. The Pushtun tribes made their movements and asserted their independence in the land watered by the western branch of the Indus River. The Langhas and later the Arghuns become the Master of Multan. The Sama ruling dynasty started a new era of Cultural development and prosperity in Sindh. The Baluchis in concert with Brahuis leapt forward not only to build their kingdom in Balochistan but also migrated eastward and northward. Apart from these political shape of the country, there was an unparalleled development in art and architecture, literature and music, and particularly new social integration took place on the basis of the patronage of local languages, such as Baluchi, Sindhi, Panjabi, Pashto, Kashmiri, Shina and Burushaski. All these languages received literary form with the support of the Muslims rulers and the first time their literatures began to take shape. They received influence from Arabic and Persian and added many themes from the Folklores as well as from those of Central Asia. Such an unusual developments transformed the society with the stories from Shahnama and Hazar Dastan and with the Folk-tales from Lila-Majnun, Sassi-Punnu and Hir-Ranjha. The stringed instruments, the dholak and the dhap and also flute and trinklets gave a new tone to the life of the people of Multan, Thatta, Marha Shrif in D.I. Khan, Swat and Kashmir, and finally Gilgit, Hunza and Baltistan created the finest architecture of the time. That was the period of new religious activity in the country side when Islam become the dominant religion of the people who were directly linked in religious ties with the people of Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey and Arab world.
The migrant people had brought the new technology of straining the horse from Central Asia and Iran. Were ever the horse galloped right up the corner of Bengal and Orissa, the Turks and Afghans advanced from Pakistan and established new empires. Here the artisans and craftsman gathered in new centre, cities began to grow with new craft mohallas, and they began to specialise in the products of Shawl and carpets in Kashmir, chapkan, chadar and dopatta in Punjab and Chitral and Northern Areas, tile work in Multan, Hala and Hyderabad, block printing in Sindh and fine carpentry in Chiniot, Bhira and Dera Ismail Khan. As a result several families occupied themselves in traditional crafts and passed them on to their own children.
Then came the Mughal emperors, descendent of Amir Timur, who, following the Mongol ruler Changiz Khan, had embarked on building a new world empire on the basis of organizing a new type of cavalry and making a new disciplined army in the unites of hundred and thousand. The later still survive in the name of Hazara both in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The first Mughal emperor, Zahiruddin Muhammad Baber, who had to come out from Farghana, brought a new taste of poetry, baghicha and architectural forms from the natural environment and landscape from Farghana and Samarqand, latter city reflecting the delicious water of Zarafshan (golden) river. Baber built his first terraced garden in Kabul and then choose the beautiful spot at Kalda or Kallar Kahar in Chakwal district and built here Bagh-i-Safa on the very spot marked by this throne seat. It was again terraced garden watered by a near by spring. At the old Bhira on the bank of Jhelum he built a fort and then proceeded to Shah Dara (the Royal pass Gate) that opened his route the city of Lahore. At Shah Dara several garden were laid by by the Mughal noblemen but only one is preserved inside Jahangir tomb that was built by his queen Nur Jehan who lies buried in another mausoleums. The tomb along with the garden is now desolate. There is also Kamran's baradari, without the garden, that still defies the flood of the Ravi river. When the Mughal emperors followed Baber one after the other, they choose the old Lahore on the bank of Ravi to their main Urban centres in Punjab. It was developed as a city of gardens with numerous gardens around but the main Mughal fortress was built in an Island, surrounded by the Ravi on the three sides and only on the east it was joined to the city proper. Here third Mughal emperor Akbar transferred his capital from Agra to meet the challenge of cousin Mirza Hakim. Here he laid the foundation of a typical Mughal citadel with royal residences, called Akbari Mahal and Jahangiri Mahal, with a prominent Diwan-i-Aam built in the traditional Iranian style, all constructed in red sand stone imported from Rajistan. Later Akbar's grandson Shah Jehan, the King of architecture, transformed many buildings and renewed to his taste with white marble. He added Diwan-i-Khas that overlooked Ravi, his palace and Turkish Bath and still more important the Moti Masjid, the gem of monuments, with beautiful decorative designs in precious stones set in marble.
However, his choicest building is the Shish Mahal, the Mirror Palace that was the constructed by the side of a Char-bagh style garden with running water channel and fountains, but later destroyed by the Sikhs, and quadrangles remodelled. Such garden, called Mehtab, can be seen in other quadrangles in the Fort. The Shish Mahal is the luxurious place of resort particularly during summer months with rest rooms of a long hall at its either end, opening on to the brilliantly dazzling Veranda that looks at the marble paved quadrangle with a fountain in the middle side. The mirror reflects the stars and the bedrooms presents, in its ceiling, the panorama of a star lit Sky. On the western side there is a unique building of Bengali style, called Naulakha, whose brilliance of precious stone outshone the natural setting of flowers and tree leaves that decorate the walls. Alas ' the Sikh and British soldiers have robbed many of the precious stones. Even then the Shish Mahal, even in its changed character by the Sikhs, presents a dazzling brilliance in its perfect creation by the Mughal emperor Shah Jehan. It is the climax of Mughal luxury surpassed nowhere in the world.
The exterior wall of the Shish Mahal one can see the beautiful mosaic paintings that depict everyday sport of the Mughal princes for the enjoyment of the people who used to gather below the fort not only to have a view of the emperor sitting in the Jharokha but also to admire the brilliance of colour on the wall. Here one can observe galloping horses, humped camels, elephant ride, hunting scene, animal fights, horse man plying polo or chaughan, camel fights, figures of angels, demon head sand moving clouds, horse and elephant riders crossing Swords and verities of floral and geometrical designs. There are three gates to enter the fort, all three of them showing different tastes. The Masti (or correctly Masjid) Gate on the east shows Akbar's taste of red sand stone. The Shahburj gate on the west presents the fine mosaic decorations of the time of Janhangir. The last is the Alamgiri gate built by Emperor Aurangzeb, showing tasteful simple entrance with multiple facetted Tower at either end, crowned by Kiosks.
From Shish Mahal one can have a magnificent view of the Badashahi Masjid built by Aurangzeb on a spot regained after the river Ravi shifted further away. Its magnificent Stair way leading to the elegant red sand stone gate way on the east is highly impressive. It is on the left side that later the tomb of Allama Iqbal was built. The gate way, which is preserved the relic of the Prophet and also in one of the copy of the Holy Qur'an with brilliant calligraphy, leads into a wide open courtyard, having a washing pond in its middle, and rows of cells on its sides. On its west is the main prayer chamber of oblong shape marked by four tall corner towers. On its roof are three marble dooms of bulbous shape that attract the eye from a long distance. The interior of the mosque has chaste decoration in the mehrab chamber that opened in to equally well decorated side aisles. It has a Verandah on the front that is again tastefully decorated. But the most elegant are the tall towers at four corners of the quadrangle, from the top of which one can have an unforgettable view of the city of Lahore.
There are two other beauties in the city of which the greatest monumental gems of Lahore. The first is the most chaste fully painted mosque of Wazir Khan, which was once the centre of religious and educational activities during the Mughals period. In its original design the mosque was fronted by an open maidan that presented from a distance a marvellous view of the mosque. It was built by Ilmuddin Ansari, hailing from the old trading city of Chiniot, but later he gave rise to the city of Wazirabad. He was raised to the high post of governor by Shah Jehan for his devoted service and great skill of Hikmat. But of greater importance in his taste of decorative architecture which he has translated into this mosque. The mosque plan, which is typical Mughals style but for its squat domes has tall minarets crowned by tasteful Chhatris. The most attractive is the mosaic ornamentation of the facade, the minars, and particularly the mihrab, which remains unsurpassed in its setting and choice of decorations and calligraphic work. In its charging decoration the mosque symbolises high sense of taste and marks a magnificent attraction in Lahore, to which both Shah Jehan as well as his officials gave a new face of colour and charm.
And yet the greatest jewel of the city of Lahore is the Shalimar Bagh, the unique pleasure resort that has been gifted to the world by the Mughal emperors. With paying a visit to this garden one can hardly understand the Mughal love for pleasances. In its creation what a real pleasure they have bestowed to the people of Lahore. The garden sumbolises the elixir of life that the Mughals alone could imagine. They had long left Farghana but the beauteous charm of its terraced fields lingered behind that has been recaptured in the Char bagh style of the garden in Shalimar, as Taj Mahal in Agra is the symbol of unforgettable love of emperor Shah Jehan, in the form of unique architectural creation, for the beloved queen Mumtaz Mahal, so is the Shalimar, the epitome, of Shala (fire of love), the embodiment of the highest playful joy in life that the emperor and empress could have in this world. The garden is a combination of Char baghs, water channels, fountains, Cascades, water falls and bathing hall in three different terraces, each terrace headed by beautiful pavilions for a pause of pleasurable enjoyment and then to pass on the other ponds of joy, inset with showering fountains, each terrace presenting varieties in scenic complex. Starting from a elaborate gate way in the south , with a water fountain in its middle chamber, we enter the open space, surrounded on right and left, by residential quarters, having long walkways, in the middle of either side of a channel marked by fountain, that join together on the four sides on a watery platform. And then we pass to the first pavilion that looks at a square pond remarkable sitting a cascade of a water falling down below the pavilion, series of fountains around a central seat for musicians and dancers and smaller pavilions at the four corners. From the top pavilion the elite royalties draw their pleasure from the scenic panorama in front and from the corner pavilions guests could roll in pleasance and enjoy the music of the running fountains coupled with the music of the singers and dancers. The next lower terrace begin with a rare bathing hall in the middle with water fountains lower down and lighted lamps in the arched niches of the walls. Here one could cool the legs during summer months- a novel way of cooling the atmosphere in the days when there were no electricity and air conditioners. And thus we find here a thrilling atmosphere where natural art has been channelised in the service of man. What a creation of charming loveliness that is combined with cooling water in various forms to soothe the evening of warm Lahore.
That is not all of Mughal architecture. If one likes to see the Mughal fondness for hunting, one can go to Sheikhupura, not far from Lahore , and admire the construction of Hiran Minar by Emperor Jahangir on the spot where his dearly loved deer died. That minar stands by the side of a tank which has in its middle a three storied pavilion for a general view around. If one is interested to see the defence arrangements of the Mughals, one can go to Attock on the bank of the Indus River, where Akbar built a magnificent fort, made arrangements for crossing the river by boat-bridge and laid a new road south of the Kabul river leading to Peshawar through the Khyber pass to Kabul. And then come to Attock the empress Nur Jahan, who constructed here a caravan serai, known as Begum Ki Serai, with a platform at its four corners and living rooms cooled by the Indus breeze. It is from one of the top platform that one could look at the magnificent expanse of the Indus River, full of flowing life and natural beauty, that perhaps will remain as the lasting memory of the Indus land, that is Pakistan.
As in many other countries of the world, man in Pakistan began with the technology of working on old stone by using quartzite and flint found in Rohri hills and stone pebbles found in the Soan Valley. The oldest stone tool in the world, going back to 2.2 million years old, has been found at Rabat, about fifteen miles away from Rawalpindi, thus breaking the African record. The largest hand Axe has also been found in the Soan Valley. Although man is still hiding in some corner, the Soan pebble stone age culture show a link with the Hissar Culture in Central Asia. Later about fifty thousand B.C. at Sangho Cave in Mardan District man improved his technology for working on Quartz in order to chase the animal in closed valleys. Still later he worked on micro quartz and chert or flint and produced arrows, knives, scrapers and blades and hunted the feeling deer and ibexes with bow and arrow. Such an hunting scene is well illustrated on several rock carvings, particularly near Chilas in the Northern Areas of Pakistan along the Karakorum Highway - a style of rock art so well known in the trans- Pamir region of Tajikistan and Kirghizstan. However, the first settled life began in the eight millennium B.C. when the first village was found at Mehergarh in the Sibi districts of Balochistan comparable with the earliest villages of Jericho in Palestine and Jarmo in Iraq. Here their mud houses have been excavated and agricultural land known for the cultivation of maize and wheat. Man began to live together in settled social life and used polished stone tools, made pots and pans, beads and other ornaments. His taste for decoration developed and he began to paint his vessels, jars, bowls, drinking glasses, dishes and plates. It was now that he discovered the advantage of using metals for his tools and other objects of daily use. For the first time in seventh millennium B.C. he learnt to use bronze. From the first revolution in his social, cultural and economic life. He established trade relation with the people of Turkamenistan, Uzbekistan, Iran and other Arab world.
He not only specialized in painting different designs on pottery, made varieties of pots and used cotton and wool but also made terracotta figurines and imported precious stones from Afghanistan and Central Asia. This early bronze age culture spread out in the country side of Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab and North West Frontier Province.
And this early beginning led to the concentration of population into small towns. Such as Kot-Diji in Sindh and Rehman Dheri in Dera Ismail Khan District. It is this social and Cultural change that led to the rise of the famous cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappra, the largest concentration of population including artisans, craftsman, businessmen and rulers. This culminated in the peak of the Indus Civilization, which was primarily based on intensive irrigated land agriculture and overseas trade and contact with Iran, Gulf States, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Dams were built for storing river water, land was Cultivated by means of bullock- harnessed plough - a system that still prevails in Pakistan, granaries for food storage were built, furnace were used for controlling temperature for making red pottery and various kinds of ornaments, beads of carnelian, agate and terracotta were pierced through, and above all they traded their finished goods with Central Asia and Arab world. It is these trade divided that enriched the urban populace who developed a new sense of moral honesty, discipline and cleanliness, and above all a social stratification in which the priests and the mercantile class dominated the society. The picture of high civilization can be gathered only by looking at the city of Mohenjodaro, the first planned city in the world, in which streets are aligned straight, parallels to each other, with a cross streets cutting at right angles. It is through these wide streets that wheeled carriages, drawn by bulls or asses, moved about, carrying well-adorned persons seated on them, appreciating the closely aligned houses, made of pucca bricks, all running straight along the streets. And then through the middle of the streets ran stone dressed drains covered with stone slabs - a practice of keeping the streets clean from polluted water, for the first time seen in the world.
The Indus Civilization is the first literate Civilization of the subcontinent. The cities were centres of art and craft. Where the artisan produced several kinds of goods that were exported to other countries. Sailing boats sailed out from Mohenjodaro and anchored in the port of the Gulf, which region was perhaps known as Dilmin. However, it was the city administration that managed the urban life in strict discipline and controlled the trade in their hands. The discipline is derived from the strict practice of meditation (yoga) that was practiced by the elite of the city, who appear to have trimmed their beard and hair combed and tied with golden fillets. The body was covered with a shawl bearing trefoil designs on them. Such a noble man with a sharp nose and long wish eyes shows a contrast with a bronze figurine of a dancing and singing girl, plying music with her fully bang led hand, as we find today with the Cholistan ladies having bangled hands. Obviously there were distinctive ethnic groups of people in Mohenjodaro but the dominant class of rulers and merchants appear to be distinctive from the rest of the population. It is these literate people who inter- acted with the Arabian people and continued to maintain strict discipline in the society. It is they who developed astronomy, mathematics, and science in the country along with numerical symbols, weights and measures but they thoroughly intermixed in the society and also believed in the local cult of tree and tree deities and animal totems. The most prominent animals as attested in the seals are bull, buffalo, elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, alligator and deer and ibexes. However, Mesopotamian influences are seen in the figures of Gilgamash, Enkidu, joint statue of the bull and man and other animals with several heads and bodies. However, the unique local concept is that of highly meditative man, seated in his heels, with three or four heads, and combining in himself the power to control the animals probably with a crown of horns or some times a tree overhead. It is this supreme deity, depicted on Seals, that draws the serpent worshippers and overpowers the animals. A part from these there was no concept of nature worship as we find in the Vedas of the Aryans. The ritual consisted of offerings through the intermediary of mythological composite animals to the tree deity. These dose not appear to have been any concept of animals sacrifice nor worship of any idol or idols. The Indus civilization lasted for nearly five hundred years and flourished up to 1750 B.C. when we notice the movements of nomadic tribes in Central Asia. As a result the Asian trade system was greatly disturbed. Consequently the trade and industry of the Indus people greatly suffered with the result that led to the end of the Civilization. The cities vanished, the noble lost their position. The writing finished. The common people met with the influx of new horse-riding pastoralists who hardly understood the system of irrigated agriculture and hence the value of dams. Such nomadic tribes are known from the large number of graves and their village settlements all over Swat, Dir and Bajaur right up to Taxila. In the Northern Areas of Pakistan different group of such tribes, known as Dardic people are known from their graves. The tribes of the plains are recognized as different groups of the Aryans from the hilly tribes of the North- the ancestors of the Kalash people and those who now speak Shina, Burushaski and other Kohistani languages. They had nothing to do with the cities as we find them building small villages nor did they know irrigation. Infect they believed in nature gods, one of them Indra destroyed the dams and spelled disaster on the local Dasyus who differed from them in colour, creed and language. These Aryans conquerors developed there own religion of the Vedas, practiced animal sacrifice and gradually built up tribal kingdoms all over the Indus Valley. The most prominent being that of Gandhara with capitals at Pushkalavati (modern Charsadda) and Taxila, the last having been the older capital of Takshaka, the king of serpent worshippers. Taksha-sila (a Sanskrit word, literally translated in to Persian Mari-Qila) survive in modern Margala. It become the strong hold of the Aryans, whose great epic book Mahabharata was for the first time recited here. Since that time Takshka-sila or Taxila lying on the western side of Margala remained the capital of the Indus land, which was called Sapta- Sindhu (the land of seven rivers) by the Aryans. It because of this central location, en routs from Central to South Asia that the new capital of Pakistan has been established at Islamabad on the eastern side of Margala hill , thus giving a historical link from the most ancient to modern time and new significance to Pakistan as a link between Central and South Asia.
The city of Taxila began to grow from 6th century B.C. onward when Achaemenian kings by name Cyrus and Darius joined this city by road and postal services with their own capital at Persepolis in Iran. Here one can see the Aryan village at Hatial mound lying above the pre-Aryan bronze age capital of Takshakas (Serpent worshippers). One can also visit the Achaemenian city at Bhir mound, where old bazaars and royal palace, with long covered drain, have been discovered. Land rout trade with Iran and the west once again started with the issue of coin currency for the first time in the Indus land. But the most important was the great use of iron technology, which produced several kind of iron tools, weapons and other objects of daily use as known as from the excavations at Taxila. Above all a new writing known as Kharoshti was developed here. At the same time the oldest University of the world was founded at Taxila, where taught the great grammarian Panini, born at the modern village of Lahur in Sawabi district of the Frontier Province. It is the basis of this grammar that modern linguistics has been developed. It is in this University that Chandra Gupta Maurya got his education, who later founded the first sub continental empire in South Asia. He developed the Mauryan city at Bhir mound in Taxila, where ruled his grandson, Ashoka, twice as governor. He introduced Buddhism in Gandhara and built the first Buddhist monastery, called Dharmarajika Vihara, at Taxila. Ashoka has left behind his Rock Edicts at two palaces, one at Mansehra and another at Shahbazgari, written in Kharoshti.
Long before the rise of Chandra Gupta Maurya the Achaemenian empire, that had extended from Pakistan to Greece and Egypt, had collapsed under the onslaught of Alexander of Macedonia. He first finished with the Greek city states, united the Greeks, and dashed forward to annex the Achaemenian empire and hence proceeded to all those places where the Achaemenian had ruled. In this march they come to Taxila in 326 B.C. where he was welcomed by the local king Ambhi in his palace at Bhir mound. It is here as well as at Bhira in Jhelum district that Alexander's remains can be seen. However, he fought the greatest battale on the bank of the Jhelum river opposite the present village of Jalalpur Sharif against Porus, the head of the heroic Puru tribe, whose descendents still supply military personal to the Pakistan army. Alexander's battle place was at Mong, where he founded a new city, called Nikea, the city of victory. The other city which he founded was called Bucaphela after the name of his horse that died here. However, the most captivating site is at Jalalpur Shaif, laying on the bank of rivulet Gandaria, perhaps Sikanaria, where Alexander's monument has now been built on the spot where he stopped for about two months before launching his attack on Porus.
The Achaemenian and Alexander's contacts with Pakistan are very important from the point of view of educational and Cultural history. The Achaemenian brought the learning and science of Mesopotamia Civilization that enriched the University of Taxila. They also introduced their administrative system here, on the basis of which the famous book on political science, called Arthasastra was written in Sanskrit language in Taxila by Kautilya, known as Chanakya, the teacher of Chandra Gupta Maurya. It is this book that was adapted for the administrative of the Mauryan empire. On the basis of Achaemenian currency the Mauryan punch marked coins. So well known in Taxila, were produced. It is their Aramaic writing, used by Achaemenian clerks, that led to the development of Kharoshti in Pakistan and trade with the Semitic world that created the Brahmi writing in India. On the other hand Alexander brought Greek knowledge and science to Taxila and introduced Greek type of coin currency. It is Taxila that philosophers and men of learning of the two countries met and developed science, mathematics and astronomy. Above all Alexander left behind large number of Greeks in Central Asia, who founded the Bactrian Greek kingdom in mid-third century B.C. it is the descendants of these Bactrian Greeks who later advanced in to Pakistan and built up the Greek kingdom here and built up their own city at Sirkap in Taxila. This is the second well planned city in Pakistan. The Greeks introduced their language, art and religion in the country of Gandhara, where ruled thirteen Greek kings and queens. Their language lasted more than five hundred years and their art and religion and considerable influence on the flourish of Gandhara Civilization.
This civilization was the result of interaction of several peoples who followed the Greeks, the Scythians, the Parthians and Kushans who came one the other from Central Asia along the Silk Road and integrated them selves into the local society. It is under their patronage that Buddhism evolved here into its new Mahayana form and this become the religion of the contemporary people in Pakistan. Under their encouragement the Buddhist monks moved along the Silk Road freely and carried this religion to central Asia, China, Korea and Japan. It is again the trade along the silk road that was particularly controlled by the Kushana emperors, who built a mighty empire with Peshawar as their Capital, the boundaries of which extended from the Aral Sea to the Arabian Sea and from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal. It is the dividends of trade that enriched Pakistan and led to the development of Gandhara Art, which mirrors the social, religious and common man's life of the time. It is an art that was blend of the Greek classical and local arts, which created the finest statues of Buddha and Buddhisatttvas that today decorate the museums all over the world. At the same time the sculpture depict the whole life of the Buddha in a manner that is unsurpassed. Many Greek themes, their gods, typical toilet trays, Greek life scenes showing musicians, drinking bouts and love making are presented in there natural fashion. The Kushanas period was the golden age of Pakistan as the Silk Road trade brought unparalleled prosperity to the people of the country.
The luxury items produced in the country enrich the museum at Taxila at that show the Cultural and trends of life of the time. Gandhara art is the high water achievement of the people of Pakistan. Mahayana Buddhism was the inspiring ideal of the time and the Buddhist stupas and monasteries survive in every nook and corner of the hills. It was this time that the country was known as Kushana-shahar, the land of the Kushanas, to which came the Romanships to carry the luxury goods in exchange for Roman Siler and Gold, that were used by the Kushana emperors and as a result their gold currency flooded the country and all along the Silk road. It is these Kushana kings who have gifted the national dress of shalwar and kamiz and sherwani to Pakistan. Their dress and decorations are deeply imprinted on the Indus land, that is now Pakistan.
Then came from Central Asia the Huns and the Turks who gave to Pakistan the present ethnic, their Culture, Food and Adab. The Jats, Gakkhars, Janjuas (Jouanjouan of the Chinese) and Gujars all trekked into Pakistan and made their home here. The Rajput rose and founded the feudal system in Punjab and Sindh in the same way the Pashtuns, who borrowed the surname of Gul and later the title of Khan from the Mongols, their Sardari system in Balochistan, and slowly developed the Wadera practice in the Indus delta region of Sindh. This feudal arrangements, which was the result of confederated tribes of the Huns, led to new administrative system in the country and created a new form of land management that has lasted until today. The tribes have fused into the agricultural society but their brotherhoods have survived and they have given a permanent character to Pakistan.
In the early eight Century A.D. the Arabs brought Islam in Sindh and Multan built up the kingdom of Al-Mansurah in Sindh. At the same time their east ward Sea trade introduced porcelain and called on were from China and popularized glass were from Iran Syria- new materials that can be seen in the excavations at Bambhore in Sindh. With the Muslims Turks came the Sufis and Dervishes from Central Asia. Iran and Afghanistan and they spread Islam all over the country. It is Sultan Mahamud of Ghazni who made Lahore- the city of Data Sahib as his second capital. However, the city of Multan become famous as the city of Saints although it lay en route the camel caravan that carried on trade between Pakistan and Central Asia right up to Baku in Azerbaijan. It is these cities that the famous Muslims monuments of old are to be seen. As a result of the Saintly activity Pakistan become a land of Islamic Civilization. In several villages and cities we now find the Dargah of these Muslims Saints. While Shahbaz Kalandar is a well known in Sindh, Baba Farid Shakarganj resided over Pak Pattan in Punjab, Buner Baba rules over the Frontier region, and Syed Ali Hamdani is the real Sufi Saint in Kashmir. The capital city of Islamabad enshrines the well known Golra Sharif and Barri Imam. It is in these Saints who influenced the development of Sufi literature in all the languages of Pakistan and their monumental tombs that attract the people from all the country. In the old city of Thatta at Makli hill several tombs and Mausoleums are spread over the place that surpass in the beauty of stone carving but much more than this they evidence the historical evolution of architecture from 12th century A.D. to the Mughal time.
This was a period of great change in the historical integration of the people in Pakistan when the country was brought closer to Central Asia and the Arab world. The mixing of several tribes from both these regions transformed the ethnic complex of the country. Just as in the period of Kushanas of Mahayana type rose here and the Buddhist monks out from this land along the Silk road to carry the massage of the Buddha, now it was the Arabs and the Muslims Saints from Central Asia who came in the reverse direction and flocked in the prosperous land of Pakistan. New trade route were opened in the reverse direction from those countries into the Indus land. From the Huns to the Turks the age of cavalry dominated the life scene. Many Rock carvings in Central Punjab show men riding, even standing on horse back and brandishing their swords and shooting arrows. Hence forward Polo game become common and sword dance was common, as seen in the Rock carving near Chilas. The foundation of Muslims state was firmly laid, in which the dominate position first occupied by the Arabs in Sindh and Multan and later by the Gaznavid and Ghorid Sultans who made the Indus country as their spring board from the onward conquest of India. A beautiful monument in memory of sultan Ghori can be seen at Suhawa on the National Highway. It was therefore in the fitness of things that the first missile made in Pakistan was named after Ghori. Several Muslims kingdoms grew up in this country. Beginning from north we find the Tarkhan ruling dynasty, who came from trans-pamir region here and become supreme in the Gilgit area. The descendent of Shah Mir founded the Muslims Sultanate in Kashmir maintained its independents until the time of the Mughal emperor Akbar. The Pushtun tribes made their movements and asserted their independence in the land watered by the western branch of the Indus River. The Langhas and later the Arghuns become the Master of Multan. The Sama ruling dynasty started a new era of Cultural development and prosperity in Sindh. The Baluchis in concert with Brahuis leapt forward not only to build their kingdom in Balochistan but also migrated eastward and northward. Apart from these political shape of the country, there was an unparalleled development in art and architecture, literature and music, and particularly new social integration took place on the basis of the patronage of local languages, such as Baluchi, Sindhi, Panjabi, Pashto, Kashmiri, Shina and Burushaski. All these languages received literary form with the support of the Muslims rulers and the first time their literatures began to take shape. They received influence from Arabic and Persian and added many themes from the Folklores as well as from those of Central Asia. Such an unusual developments transformed the society with the stories from Shahnama and Hazar Dastan and with the Folk-tales from Lila-Majnun, Sassi-Punnu and Hir-Ranjha. The stringed instruments, the dholak and the dhap and also flute and trinklets gave a new tone to the life of the people of Multan, Thatta, Marha Shrif in D.I. Khan, Swat and Kashmir, and finally Gilgit, Hunza and Baltistan created the finest architecture of the time. That was the period of new religious activity in the country side when Islam become the dominant religion of the people who were directly linked in religious ties with the people of Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey and Arab world.
The migrant people had brought the new technology of straining the horse from Central Asia and Iran. Were ever the horse galloped right up the corner of Bengal and Orissa, the Turks and Afghans advanced from Pakistan and established new empires. Here the artisans and craftsman gathered in new centre, cities began to grow with new craft mohallas, and they began to specialise in the products of Shawl and carpets in Kashmir, chapkan, chadar and dopatta in Punjab and Chitral and Northern Areas, tile work in Multan, Hala and Hyderabad, block printing in Sindh and fine carpentry in Chiniot, Bhira and Dera Ismail Khan. As a result several families occupied themselves in traditional crafts and passed them on to their own children.
Then came the Mughal emperors, descendent of Amir Timur, who, following the Mongol ruler Changiz Khan, had embarked on building a new world empire on the basis of organizing a new type of cavalry and making a new disciplined army in the unites of hundred and thousand. The later still survive in the name of Hazara both in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The first Mughal emperor, Zahiruddin Muhammad Baber, who had to come out from Farghana, brought a new taste of poetry, baghicha and architectural forms from the natural environment and landscape from Farghana and Samarqand, latter city reflecting the delicious water of Zarafshan (golden) river. Baber built his first terraced garden in Kabul and then choose the beautiful spot at Kalda or Kallar Kahar in Chakwal district and built here Bagh-i-Safa on the very spot marked by this throne seat. It was again terraced garden watered by a near by spring. At the old Bhira on the bank of Jhelum he built a fort and then proceeded to Shah Dara (the Royal pass Gate) that opened his route the city of Lahore. At Shah Dara several garden were laid by by the Mughal noblemen but only one is preserved inside Jahangir tomb that was built by his queen Nur Jehan who lies buried in another mausoleums. The tomb along with the garden is now desolate. There is also Kamran's baradari, without the garden, that still defies the flood of the Ravi river. When the Mughal emperors followed Baber one after the other, they choose the old Lahore on the bank of Ravi to their main Urban centres in Punjab. It was developed as a city of gardens with numerous gardens around but the main Mughal fortress was built in an Island, surrounded by the Ravi on the three sides and only on the east it was joined to the city proper. Here third Mughal emperor Akbar transferred his capital from Agra to meet the challenge of cousin Mirza Hakim. Here he laid the foundation of a typical Mughal citadel with royal residences, called Akbari Mahal and Jahangiri Mahal, with a prominent Diwan-i-Aam built in the traditional Iranian style, all constructed in red sand stone imported from Rajistan. Later Akbar's grandson Shah Jehan, the King of architecture, transformed many buildings and renewed to his taste with white marble. He added Diwan-i-Khas that overlooked Ravi, his palace and Turkish Bath and still more important the Moti Masjid, the gem of monuments, with beautiful decorative designs in precious stones set in marble.
However, his choicest building is the Shish Mahal, the Mirror Palace that was the constructed by the side of a Char-bagh style garden with running water channel and fountains, but later destroyed by the Sikhs, and quadrangles remodelled. Such garden, called Mehtab, can be seen in other quadrangles in the Fort. The Shish Mahal is the luxurious place of resort particularly during summer months with rest rooms of a long hall at its either end, opening on to the brilliantly dazzling Veranda that looks at the marble paved quadrangle with a fountain in the middle side. The mirror reflects the stars and the bedrooms presents, in its ceiling, the panorama of a star lit Sky. On the western side there is a unique building of Bengali style, called Naulakha, whose brilliance of precious stone outshone the natural setting of flowers and tree leaves that decorate the walls. Alas ' the Sikh and British soldiers have robbed many of the precious stones. Even then the Shish Mahal, even in its changed character by the Sikhs, presents a dazzling brilliance in its perfect creation by the Mughal emperor Shah Jehan. It is the climax of Mughal luxury surpassed nowhere in the world.
The exterior wall of the Shish Mahal one can see the beautiful mosaic paintings that depict everyday sport of the Mughal princes for the enjoyment of the people who used to gather below the fort not only to have a view of the emperor sitting in the Jharokha but also to admire the brilliance of colour on the wall. Here one can observe galloping horses, humped camels, elephant ride, hunting scene, animal fights, horse man plying polo or chaughan, camel fights, figures of angels, demon head sand moving clouds, horse and elephant riders crossing Swords and verities of floral and geometrical designs. There are three gates to enter the fort, all three of them showing different tastes. The Masti (or correctly Masjid) Gate on the east shows Akbar's taste of red sand stone. The Shahburj gate on the west presents the fine mosaic decorations of the time of Janhangir. The last is the Alamgiri gate built by Emperor Aurangzeb, showing tasteful simple entrance with multiple facetted Tower at either end, crowned by Kiosks.
From Shish Mahal one can have a magnificent view of the Badashahi Masjid built by Aurangzeb on a spot regained after the river Ravi shifted further away. Its magnificent Stair way leading to the elegant red sand stone gate way on the east is highly impressive. It is on the left side that later the tomb of Allama Iqbal was built. The gate way, which is preserved the relic of the Prophet and also in one of the copy of the Holy Qur'an with brilliant calligraphy, leads into a wide open courtyard, having a washing pond in its middle, and rows of cells on its sides. On its west is the main prayer chamber of oblong shape marked by four tall corner towers. On its roof are three marble dooms of bulbous shape that attract the eye from a long distance. The interior of the mosque has chaste decoration in the mehrab chamber that opened in to equally well decorated side aisles. It has a Verandah on the front that is again tastefully decorated. But the most elegant are the tall towers at four corners of the quadrangle, from the top of which one can have an unforgettable view of the city of Lahore.
There are two other beauties in the city of which the greatest monumental gems of Lahore. The first is the most chaste fully painted mosque of Wazir Khan, which was once the centre of religious and educational activities during the Mughals period. In its original design the mosque was fronted by an open maidan that presented from a distance a marvellous view of the mosque. It was built by Ilmuddin Ansari, hailing from the old trading city of Chiniot, but later he gave rise to the city of Wazirabad. He was raised to the high post of governor by Shah Jehan for his devoted service and great skill of Hikmat. But of greater importance in his taste of decorative architecture which he has translated into this mosque. The mosque plan, which is typical Mughals style but for its squat domes has tall minarets crowned by tasteful Chhatris. The most attractive is the mosaic ornamentation of the facade, the minars, and particularly the mihrab, which remains unsurpassed in its setting and choice of decorations and calligraphic work. In its charging decoration the mosque symbolises high sense of taste and marks a magnificent attraction in Lahore, to which both Shah Jehan as well as his officials gave a new face of colour and charm.
And yet the greatest jewel of the city of Lahore is the Shalimar Bagh, the unique pleasure resort that has been gifted to the world by the Mughal emperors. With paying a visit to this garden one can hardly understand the Mughal love for pleasances. In its creation what a real pleasure they have bestowed to the people of Lahore. The garden sumbolises the elixir of life that the Mughals alone could imagine. They had long left Farghana but the beauteous charm of its terraced fields lingered behind that has been recaptured in the Char bagh style of the garden in Shalimar, as Taj Mahal in Agra is the symbol of unforgettable love of emperor Shah Jehan, in the form of unique architectural creation, for the beloved queen Mumtaz Mahal, so is the Shalimar, the epitome, of Shala (fire of love), the embodiment of the highest playful joy in life that the emperor and empress could have in this world. The garden is a combination of Char baghs, water channels, fountains, Cascades, water falls and bathing hall in three different terraces, each terrace headed by beautiful pavilions for a pause of pleasurable enjoyment and then to pass on the other ponds of joy, inset with showering fountains, each terrace presenting varieties in scenic complex. Starting from a elaborate gate way in the south , with a water fountain in its middle chamber, we enter the open space, surrounded on right and left, by residential quarters, having long walkways, in the middle of either side of a channel marked by fountain, that join together on the four sides on a watery platform. And then we pass to the first pavilion that looks at a square pond remarkable sitting a cascade of a water falling down below the pavilion, series of fountains around a central seat for musicians and dancers and smaller pavilions at the four corners. From the top pavilion the elite royalties draw their pleasure from the scenic panorama in front and from the corner pavilions guests could roll in pleasance and enjoy the music of the running fountains coupled with the music of the singers and dancers. The next lower terrace begin with a rare bathing hall in the middle with water fountains lower down and lighted lamps in the arched niches of the walls. Here one could cool the legs during summer months- a novel way of cooling the atmosphere in the days when there were no electricity and air conditioners. And thus we find here a thrilling atmosphere where natural art has been channelised in the service of man. What a creation of charming loveliness that is combined with cooling water in various forms to soothe the evening of warm Lahore.
That is not all of Mughal architecture. If one likes to see the Mughal fondness for hunting, one can go to Sheikhupura, not far from Lahore , and admire the construction of Hiran Minar by Emperor Jahangir on the spot where his dearly loved deer died. That minar stands by the side of a tank which has in its middle a three storied pavilion for a general view around. If one is interested to see the defence arrangements of the Mughals, one can go to Attock on the bank of the Indus River, where Akbar built a magnificent fort, made arrangements for crossing the river by boat-bridge and laid a new road south of the Kabul river leading to Peshawar through the Khyber pass to Kabul. And then come to Attock the empress Nur Jahan, who constructed here a caravan serai, known as Begum Ki Serai, with a platform at its four corners and living rooms cooled by the Indus breeze. It is from one of the top platform that one could look at the magnificent expanse of the Indus River, full of flowing life and natural beauty, that perhaps will remain as the lasting memory of the Indus land, that is Pakistan.
Friday, August 25, 2006
Lead pollution and its implications for children in Pakistan
Lead
is one of the leading problems of environmental health. It is a major risk to health of the population particularly children. Higher lead levels in blood cause encepthalopathy and death while lower levels may result in neurotoxicity, hypertension, renal impairment, and altered cognitive functions. Human brain in its developmental stages, prenatal and early childhood, is very sensitive to the toxic insults. Since placenta offers no barrier to lead, prenatal exposure to lead results in impaired cognitive development, abnormal fine motor functioning, behavioral problems, low intelligent quotient and antisocial and delinquent behavior in childhood and adolescence. Malnutrition acts as effect modifier and leads to high levels of lead in malnourished children.
Over 40% of Pakistan’s population is aged less than 15 years and malnutrition is a common problem among them. Several studies in Pakistan have found high ambient air lead levels and consequently higher levels in blood. Various groups such as psychiatric patients, preschool children in a low and high ambient air lead areas, and ammunition factory workers have been studied. Consistent findings of high lead have been found in Pakistan. A 1989 study reported mean blood lead levels among males, females, soldiers and school children as 34.4, 31.8, 29.9 and 38.2 µg/dl, respectively. Another recent study conducted by Community Health Sciences Department at Aga Khan University showed that 80% of less than five year children in various communities of Karachi had lead level greater than 10 µg/dl. While the mean lead level was 15.6 µg/dl. The important predictors of blood lead levels were environmental lead level measured by distance of house from traffic cross-section, traveling in open vehicle, application of surma, father’s occupation in lead related industry. Incidentally, a coastal community away form road traffic also demonstrated very high lead levels. A study on metals in drinking water from Karachi has reported that the quantity of lead is significantly higher than the WHO recommended criteria.
Also food is cooked in metal containers that leach lead and other metals during cooking and storage. The number of vehicle has increased from 0.28 million in 1980 to 1.16 million in 1998 in cities of Pakistan. Till recently leaded gasoline was used in Pakistan. However, in last couple of years regulation to phase out lead from gasoline has been implemented in Pakistan. As a result,
petroleum companies have decreased the lead level in gasoline. United Nation Industrial Development Organization is also helping government in shifting towards cleaner fuels by providing technical expertise for upgrading refineries. Vehicle manufacturers have started installing catalytic converters in their vehicles which are compatible with the low lead fuel. This will reduce the tail pipe emissions. However actions are also necessary for regulating industrial emissions. The effect of already present lead in environment at household level needs to be studied and interventions designed especially for children This may include awareness and ban on use of pottery coated with lead alloys, use of surma, water purification, avoidance and effects of lead based paints is needed.
Background
Lead is one of the leading problems of environmental health. Lead is a chemical present in environment and is well known for its toxicity. It is still the single most important chemical toxin for children and is probably the best known example of a neurotoxin to which children are particularly vulnerable. The children (early 2-3 years) special vulnerability to lead is related to their exposure in multiple ways. The hand–mouth activity in oral phase of life of children is important determinant of exposure. Similarly, absorption of lead (the fraction of absorption in children is 40% compared with 10% in adults). Thirdly and most importantly, the susceptibility of children because they at a critical period of brain development. Lead is distributed in blood, soft tissues and bone. Renal elimination is very slow and can take many years. It takes 25 days to excrete from the blood, while approximately 40 days in soft tissue and may take 20-25 years to excrete from the bone.
Since placenta offers no barrier to lead the maternal blood lead levels correlate with fetal blood
levels and can be detrimental to the brain at its very developmental stages. Lead may cause
neurological, physiological and behavioral problems in children. At lower levels its effects range
from hearing difficulties to decrease intelligence quotient (IQ). While at higher concentration it
may lead to acute encephalopathy, memory loss and death. The neurotoxic effects of lead depend on the exposure level and the stage of brain development at the time of exposure. Studies have documented beyond doubt that developmental exposure to lead adversely affects several specific brain functions, resulting in particular in neuro-developmental impairment, learning impairments, attention deficit disorders, poor motor muskuloskeletal coordination, visual coordination dysfunction and poor language and speech development. Globally, the estimated annual costs of these effects are US$ 43.4 billion. The World Health Organization (WHO) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) considers that > 10 µg /dl as harmful for humans.
Sources of lead are varied in the environment and these include petrol, paint, water, food, cosmetics etc. Children may be exposed to lead in leaded petrol from car emissions, water contaminated by lead pipes, old paint, emissions from factories, contaminated soil, and food contaminated by environmental sources, including improperly glazed ceramic ware for cooking and food storage. Lead particles can move with water, soil, dust and wind. Lead finds its way into the body through inhalation, ingestion and dermal penetration.
Over 40% of Pakistan’s population is aged less than 15 years and malnutrition is a common problem among them. Several studies in Pakistan have found high ambient air lead levels and consequently higher levels in blood. Various groups such as psychiatric patients, preschool children in a low and high ambient air lead areas, and ammunition factory workers have been studied. Consistent findings of high lead have been found in Pakistan. A 1989 study reported mean blood lead levels among males, females, soldiers and school children as 34.4, 31.8, 29.9 and 38.2 µg/dl, respectively. Another recent study conducted by Community Health Sciences Department at Aga Khan University showed that 80% of less than five year children in various communities of Karachi had lead level greater than 10 µg/dl. While the mean lead level was 15.6 µg/dl. The important predictors of blood lead levels were environmental lead level measured by distance of house from traffic cross-section, traveling in open vehicle, application of surma, father’s occupation in lead related industry. Incidentally, a coastal community away form road traffic also demonstrated very high lead levels. A study on metals in drinking water from Karachi has reported that the quantity of lead is significantly higher than the WHO recommended criteria.
Also food is cooked in metal containers that leach lead and other metals during cooking and storage. The number of vehicle has increased from 0.28 million in 1980 to 1.16 million in 1998 in cities of Pakistan. Till recently leaded gasoline was used in Pakistan. However, in last couple of years regulation to phase out lead from gasoline has been implemented in Pakistan. As a result,
petroleum companies have decreased the lead level in gasoline. United Nation Industrial Development Organization is also helping government in shifting towards cleaner fuels by providing technical expertise for upgrading refineries. Vehicle manufacturers have started installing catalytic converters in their vehicles which are compatible with the low lead fuel. This will reduce the tail pipe emissions. However actions are also necessary for regulating industrial emissions. The effect of already present lead in environment at household level needs to be studied and interventions designed especially for children This may include awareness and ban on use of pottery coated with lead alloys, use of surma, water purification, avoidance and effects of lead based paints is needed.
Background
Lead is one of the leading problems of environmental health. Lead is a chemical present in environment and is well known for its toxicity. It is still the single most important chemical toxin for children and is probably the best known example of a neurotoxin to which children are particularly vulnerable. The children (early 2-3 years) special vulnerability to lead is related to their exposure in multiple ways. The hand–mouth activity in oral phase of life of children is important determinant of exposure. Similarly, absorption of lead (the fraction of absorption in children is 40% compared with 10% in adults). Thirdly and most importantly, the susceptibility of children because they at a critical period of brain development. Lead is distributed in blood, soft tissues and bone. Renal elimination is very slow and can take many years. It takes 25 days to excrete from the blood, while approximately 40 days in soft tissue and may take 20-25 years to excrete from the bone.
Since placenta offers no barrier to lead the maternal blood lead levels correlate with fetal blood
levels and can be detrimental to the brain at its very developmental stages. Lead may cause
neurological, physiological and behavioral problems in children. At lower levels its effects range
from hearing difficulties to decrease intelligence quotient (IQ). While at higher concentration it
may lead to acute encephalopathy, memory loss and death. The neurotoxic effects of lead depend on the exposure level and the stage of brain development at the time of exposure. Studies have documented beyond doubt that developmental exposure to lead adversely affects several specific brain functions, resulting in particular in neuro-developmental impairment, learning impairments, attention deficit disorders, poor motor muskuloskeletal coordination, visual coordination dysfunction and poor language and speech development. Globally, the estimated annual costs of these effects are US$ 43.4 billion. The World Health Organization (WHO) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) considers that > 10 µg /dl as harmful for humans.
Sources of lead are varied in the environment and these include petrol, paint, water, food, cosmetics etc. Children may be exposed to lead in leaded petrol from car emissions, water contaminated by lead pipes, old paint, emissions from factories, contaminated soil, and food contaminated by environmental sources, including improperly glazed ceramic ware for cooking and food storage. Lead particles can move with water, soil, dust and wind. Lead finds its way into the body through inhalation, ingestion and dermal penetration.
Malnutrition in children lead in increase absorption of lead and other chemicals therefore, it acts as effect modifier. Malnutrition amplifies the effect of lead toxiciy. Lead in children in Pakistan Pakistan ranks 7th in the world’s most populous states (pop. 134.8 million). Its doubling time is 7 years and more than 5.5 million children are born every year (larger than the entire population of New Zealand). Health indicators of Pakistan are gloomy compared to other low-ncome countries with similar gross national product (GNP). Infant mortality is 77 per 1000 live births.
Pakistan’s population of under-5 year old children is 23.8 millions and those of under-18 years consist of 73.7 million, literally half of the population. Every year 700,000 children die, mostly due to common preventable problems. Approximately 40% of the children are malnourished in Pakistan and approximately 24% are born low birth weight.
Several studies in Pakistan have found high ambient air lead levels and consequently higher levels in blood. Various groups such as psychiatric patients, preschool children in a low and high ambient air lead areas, and ammunition factory workers have been studied. Consistent findings of high lead have been found in Pakistan. There are very few ecological environmental evidence available to estimate the average ambient air level of lead in Pakistan. Similarly, automobiles are assumed to be an important source of lead exposure in urban areas of Pakistan. The leads from emissions is deposited and ultimately are taken up by the children. Leaded paint is another well-established cause, however, no study has been conducted so far in Pakistan to determine the levels of lead in paints.
A study has been conducted in Faisalabad city of Pakistan regarding lead content in “surma” samples. The “surma” are preparations of powders, gels and water-based fluids used for eye make-up. This study demonstrated that 80% of the samples of surma had at least 65% lead content. Therefore, it is expected that blood levels of children using surma would be higher than others. There is high proportion of household use surma as eye make-up in Pakistan. Also women use surma for cosmetic purposes and mother-fetus transmission of surma is high possibility. Manser et al., reported a mean blood lead levels of 38.2 µg /dl among school children in Karachi
city of Pakistan. The school was situated in a comparatively less congested traffic area. This
study also reported lead levels in among males, females, soldiers as 34.4, 31.8 and 29.9 µg/dl,
respectively.
Another recent study conducted by the department of Community Health Sciences of Aga Khan
University, in various groups of Karachi. The average level estimated by this study was 15.6
µg/dl. A total 430 children between the age of 36-60 months were selected from different
geographic areas within Karachi city: city center, two suburbs, a rural community and an island
situated within the harbor at Karachi. Cooked food, drinking water and house dust were sampled
from the households at these places. About 80% of the children had blood lead levels of >
10µg/dl. This study went a step further to determine the types of exposure which contribute most to elevated blood lead concentrations in children. Houses nearer to the main intersection in the city center, application of surma to children’s eyes, father’s exposure to lead at workplace,
parent’s illiteracy and child’s habit of hand-mouth activity were found associated with elevated
blood lead levels in children. Another interesting finding of the study was that they found highest levels of lead in the coastal community (island) away form road traffic. This shows that besides traffic exhaust there are other sources of lead exposure to children are available in the
environment in Pakistan. The seawater in the harbor is contaminated due to the presence of ships and boats in the area.
A study on metals in drinking water from Karachi has reported that the quantity of lead is
significantly higher than the WHO recommended criteria. Also food is cooked in metal
containers that leach lead and other metals during cooking and storage. These could be major
sources of exposure in children in Pakistan.
The number of vehicles in Pakistan has increased considerably in Pakistan. The number of
vehicle increased from 0.28 million in 1980 to 1.16 million in 1998 in cities of Pakistan. The
number is increasing has started to increase at alarming rate since car financing was made
available by the various banks recently in Pakistan.
Till recently leaded gasoline was used in Pakistan. However, authorities in Pakistan have
recently taken a positive step towards cleaning of fuel from lead. In the last couple of years
regulation to phase out lead from gasoline has been implemented in Pakistan. There has been
enforcement of legislation regarding unleaded fuel in Pakistan. There are claims that the fuel
now has less lead contents than before. As a result of this legislation, petroleum companies have
decreased the lead level in gasoline. This will reduce the tail pipe emissions.
In another step United Nation Industrial Development Organization is also helping government
in shifting towards cleaner fuels by providing technical expertise for upgrading refineries.
Vehicle manufacturers have started installing catalytic converters in their vehicles which are
compatible with the low lead fuel. The tail pipe emission may have decreased, however actions
are also necessary for regulating industrial emissions.
There are also availability of smuggled leaded fuel from neighboring countries which are
possible threat and continue to pollute the environment. Therefore, are necessary for the further enforcement of the regulation to completely phase out lead from the feul.
Studies also suggests that besides petrol there are other sources of lead toxicity in children. This include the use of surma and the availability of lead in paints. The levels in blood of children by
various studies suggest that action are also necessary at the household levels. The effect of
already present lead in environment at household level needs to be studied and interventions
designed especially for children This may include awareness and ban on use of pottery coated
with lead alloys, use of surma, water purification, avoidance and effects of lead based paints is
needed.
Pakistan’s population of under-5 year old children is 23.8 millions and those of under-18 years consist of 73.7 million, literally half of the population. Every year 700,000 children die, mostly due to common preventable problems. Approximately 40% of the children are malnourished in Pakistan and approximately 24% are born low birth weight.
Several studies in Pakistan have found high ambient air lead levels and consequently higher levels in blood. Various groups such as psychiatric patients, preschool children in a low and high ambient air lead areas, and ammunition factory workers have been studied. Consistent findings of high lead have been found in Pakistan. There are very few ecological environmental evidence available to estimate the average ambient air level of lead in Pakistan. Similarly, automobiles are assumed to be an important source of lead exposure in urban areas of Pakistan. The leads from emissions is deposited and ultimately are taken up by the children. Leaded paint is another well-established cause, however, no study has been conducted so far in Pakistan to determine the levels of lead in paints.
A study has been conducted in Faisalabad city of Pakistan regarding lead content in “surma” samples. The “surma” are preparations of powders, gels and water-based fluids used for eye make-up. This study demonstrated that 80% of the samples of surma had at least 65% lead content. Therefore, it is expected that blood levels of children using surma would be higher than others. There is high proportion of household use surma as eye make-up in Pakistan. Also women use surma for cosmetic purposes and mother-fetus transmission of surma is high possibility. Manser et al., reported a mean blood lead levels of 38.2 µg /dl among school children in Karachi
city of Pakistan. The school was situated in a comparatively less congested traffic area. This
study also reported lead levels in among males, females, soldiers as 34.4, 31.8 and 29.9 µg/dl,
respectively.
Another recent study conducted by the department of Community Health Sciences of Aga Khan
University, in various groups of Karachi. The average level estimated by this study was 15.6
µg/dl. A total 430 children between the age of 36-60 months were selected from different
geographic areas within Karachi city: city center, two suburbs, a rural community and an island
situated within the harbor at Karachi. Cooked food, drinking water and house dust were sampled
from the households at these places. About 80% of the children had blood lead levels of >
10µg/dl. This study went a step further to determine the types of exposure which contribute most to elevated blood lead concentrations in children. Houses nearer to the main intersection in the city center, application of surma to children’s eyes, father’s exposure to lead at workplace,
parent’s illiteracy and child’s habit of hand-mouth activity were found associated with elevated
blood lead levels in children. Another interesting finding of the study was that they found highest levels of lead in the coastal community (island) away form road traffic. This shows that besides traffic exhaust there are other sources of lead exposure to children are available in the
environment in Pakistan. The seawater in the harbor is contaminated due to the presence of ships and boats in the area.
A study on metals in drinking water from Karachi has reported that the quantity of lead is
significantly higher than the WHO recommended criteria. Also food is cooked in metal
containers that leach lead and other metals during cooking and storage. These could be major
sources of exposure in children in Pakistan.
The number of vehicles in Pakistan has increased considerably in Pakistan. The number of
vehicle increased from 0.28 million in 1980 to 1.16 million in 1998 in cities of Pakistan. The
number is increasing has started to increase at alarming rate since car financing was made
available by the various banks recently in Pakistan.
Till recently leaded gasoline was used in Pakistan. However, authorities in Pakistan have
recently taken a positive step towards cleaning of fuel from lead. In the last couple of years
regulation to phase out lead from gasoline has been implemented in Pakistan. There has been
enforcement of legislation regarding unleaded fuel in Pakistan. There are claims that the fuel
now has less lead contents than before. As a result of this legislation, petroleum companies have
decreased the lead level in gasoline. This will reduce the tail pipe emissions.
In another step United Nation Industrial Development Organization is also helping government
in shifting towards cleaner fuels by providing technical expertise for upgrading refineries.
Vehicle manufacturers have started installing catalytic converters in their vehicles which are
compatible with the low lead fuel. The tail pipe emission may have decreased, however actions
are also necessary for regulating industrial emissions.
There are also availability of smuggled leaded fuel from neighboring countries which are
possible threat and continue to pollute the environment. Therefore, are necessary for the further enforcement of the regulation to completely phase out lead from the feul.
Studies also suggests that besides petrol there are other sources of lead toxicity in children. This include the use of surma and the availability of lead in paints. The levels in blood of children by
various studies suggest that action are also necessary at the household levels. The effect of
already present lead in environment at household level needs to be studied and interventions
designed especially for children This may include awareness and ban on use of pottery coated
with lead alloys, use of surma, water purification, avoidance and effects of lead based paints is
needed.
The Automobile industry in Pakistan
The Automobile industry has provided direct and indirect employments to thousands and pumped in billions of investments and contributed billions more in taxes and duties to the National economy. It has also saved billions in import substitution laying down foundation for many down-stream related industries. The demand of automobiles in Pakistan has increased tremendously in the last few years due to good macro economic management and availability of cheap auto financing.
To keep up with this demand the main car manufacturers including Dewan Farooq Motors have embarked on an aggressive production enhancement strategy. It has also increased its production capacity to 16,000 units’ p.a.Our automobile market is likely to stabilize in terms of demand and supply in the year 2005 with the increase in production by all major car manufacturers and import of cars. Additionally, as a result of liberalization of import policies and reduction in import duties almost 40,000 new and used cars are expected to be imported during the fiscal year 04-05 which will also abate the demand supply gap. Leasing Companies and financial institutions have played a pivotal role to push the auto sales during last couple of years and are expected to play this role in the years to come. Although the mark rates have of late seen aggressive slashing and come down to single digit figures, the mark-up rates on auto financing still remains much to high shying away many potential buyers as compound interest in majority of the leasing options add up to over 30 percent depending on the payment period.A large number of used cars are already landing in Pakistan. These cars are being imported through Gift scheme and Transfer of Residence scheme. Both schemes were originally designed for the benefit of the expatriate Pakistanis, but now are being used as commercial business by car dealers.Dewan Farooque Motors Limited was incorporated in Pakistan on December 28, 1998 as a public limited company. The shares of the company are quoted on all the Stock Exchanges in Pakistan. The Company commenced commercial production through the interim facility from January 01, 2000. The main facility came into commercial operation from January 01, 2001. It is the baby of the Auto and Allied sector.Its 4-wheel drive ‘Sportage’, sedans like ‘Spectra’ ‘Pride’ and ‘Santro’ has been well received by the public not to mention the pick-up ‘Shehzore’. The response to ‘Santro Club’ launched in October 2002 has been very encouraging and this has enhanced capacity utilization and profitability of the Company. This success has added a new model to the family “Santro Exec 1.0 EFi” The major import of new cars is being carried out by Dewan Motors who have re-launched the Mitsubishi brand cars in Pakistan. Earlier Dewan had launched the BMW series in Pakistan for the first time. To help customer cope up with increased cost of fuel and the Country to save valuable foreign exchange, natural gas versions of Spectra, Classic and Santro models were also launched. With these new versions of various models, Dewan Motors is the only Company in the Country, which offers a wide range of vehicles, which run on natural gas. These models were well received by the market. The market domination of Hyundai Shehzore in the 1-ton Pickup Truck segment remained exceptional for the fourth consecutive year. The market share during the financial year was 51% with almost 3000 units sold. The market performance of Grace Van and KIA Grand Sportage also remained satisfactory. Apart from the vehicle sales the after-sales parts operations also showed improvement as compared to the previous year. To ensure availability of Hyundai/Kia spare parts in the remote areas where dealerships are not present, the Company has appointed authorized parts jobbers. This strategy will meet customers’ requirement of after-sales parts in those areas.
FUTURE OUTLOOK
Economic Activity in the country will continue to improve in the coming years. The Engineering Industry is pleased about the reduction in custom duty over import of Plant and Machinery along with exemption of sales tax. The investment in auto Sector will cross Rs.100 billion by next year, which stands at Rs.52 billion at present. This rapid growth has pushed the industry’s production by 36% during the last ten months and is expected to reach 160,000 units by the end of the year 2006.This apetite has been fueled by a fairly low interest rate on loanable funds and aggressive marketing in consumer finance by commercial banks.
FUNDAMENTAL ANALYSIS:
The FY 2004 was dominated by positive changes and the Company sold 12,222 vehicles as against 8,193 vehicles the previous year. The increase shows acceptance of the product. There was an overall increase in sales, gross profits, operating profits and profit after tax. The Earning per Share was Rs.3.04.The gross profit for the nine month period ended March 31, 2005 was Rs.710.407 million and the profit after tax was Rs.184.513 million. 10,885 units were sold as compared to 7994 units during the same period last year, thus showing 36 % increase. Santro and Shehzore remained major contributors to the increased sales volume. The earning per share was Rs.2.39 compared to Rs.1.51 for the previous year period. This is 58% higher than the corresponding period.
TECHNICAL ANALYSIS:
DEWAN MOTOR closed up at Rs.28.80. Volume was 490% above average (trending) and Bollinger Bands were 78% wider than normal. Short-term traders should pay closer attention to intraday levels while intermediate/long-term traders should place greater emphasis on the Bullish or Bearish trends. The share is currently 28.6% above its 200-period moving average and is in an upward trend. Volatility is high as compared to the average volatility over the last 10 periods. Our volume indicators reflect very strong flows of volume into Dewan Motor (bullish). Our trend forecasting oscillators are currently bullish on the share and have had this outlook for the last 21 periods. Our momentum oscillator is currently indicating that Dewan Motor is currently in an overbought condition. BUDGET 2005-2006In the budget 2005-2006 the Customs duty on cars from 1301cc-1500cc has been reduced from 70% to 50%, from 1500cc-1600cc decreased to 65% from 70% and, from 1601cc-1800cc reduced to 65% from 80% and the duty on cars with higher engine capacity has been slashed to 75% from 100%. A 6% with holding tax has been imposed on purchase of new cars. The impact of the budget is slightly negative on the Auto Sector but all loads shall conveniently be passed on to end users.
Blog By:
Saqib
msaqib9@hotmail.com
realities911@yahoogroups.com
To keep up with this demand the main car manufacturers including Dewan Farooq Motors have embarked on an aggressive production enhancement strategy. It has also increased its production capacity to 16,000 units’ p.a.Our automobile market is likely to stabilize in terms of demand and supply in the year 2005 with the increase in production by all major car manufacturers and import of cars. Additionally, as a result of liberalization of import policies and reduction in import duties almost 40,000 new and used cars are expected to be imported during the fiscal year 04-05 which will also abate the demand supply gap. Leasing Companies and financial institutions have played a pivotal role to push the auto sales during last couple of years and are expected to play this role in the years to come. Although the mark rates have of late seen aggressive slashing and come down to single digit figures, the mark-up rates on auto financing still remains much to high shying away many potential buyers as compound interest in majority of the leasing options add up to over 30 percent depending on the payment period.A large number of used cars are already landing in Pakistan. These cars are being imported through Gift scheme and Transfer of Residence scheme. Both schemes were originally designed for the benefit of the expatriate Pakistanis, but now are being used as commercial business by car dealers.Dewan Farooque Motors Limited was incorporated in Pakistan on December 28, 1998 as a public limited company. The shares of the company are quoted on all the Stock Exchanges in Pakistan. The Company commenced commercial production through the interim facility from January 01, 2000. The main facility came into commercial operation from January 01, 2001. It is the baby of the Auto and Allied sector.Its 4-wheel drive ‘Sportage’, sedans like ‘Spectra’ ‘Pride’ and ‘Santro’ has been well received by the public not to mention the pick-up ‘Shehzore’. The response to ‘Santro Club’ launched in October 2002 has been very encouraging and this has enhanced capacity utilization and profitability of the Company. This success has added a new model to the family “Santro Exec 1.0 EFi” The major import of new cars is being carried out by Dewan Motors who have re-launched the Mitsubishi brand cars in Pakistan. Earlier Dewan had launched the BMW series in Pakistan for the first time. To help customer cope up with increased cost of fuel and the Country to save valuable foreign exchange, natural gas versions of Spectra, Classic and Santro models were also launched. With these new versions of various models, Dewan Motors is the only Company in the Country, which offers a wide range of vehicles, which run on natural gas. These models were well received by the market. The market domination of Hyundai Shehzore in the 1-ton Pickup Truck segment remained exceptional for the fourth consecutive year. The market share during the financial year was 51% with almost 3000 units sold. The market performance of Grace Van and KIA Grand Sportage also remained satisfactory. Apart from the vehicle sales the after-sales parts operations also showed improvement as compared to the previous year. To ensure availability of Hyundai/Kia spare parts in the remote areas where dealerships are not present, the Company has appointed authorized parts jobbers. This strategy will meet customers’ requirement of after-sales parts in those areas.
FUTURE OUTLOOK
Economic Activity in the country will continue to improve in the coming years. The Engineering Industry is pleased about the reduction in custom duty over import of Plant and Machinery along with exemption of sales tax. The investment in auto Sector will cross Rs.100 billion by next year, which stands at Rs.52 billion at present. This rapid growth has pushed the industry’s production by 36% during the last ten months and is expected to reach 160,000 units by the end of the year 2006.This apetite has been fueled by a fairly low interest rate on loanable funds and aggressive marketing in consumer finance by commercial banks.
FUNDAMENTAL ANALYSIS:
The FY 2004 was dominated by positive changes and the Company sold 12,222 vehicles as against 8,193 vehicles the previous year. The increase shows acceptance of the product. There was an overall increase in sales, gross profits, operating profits and profit after tax. The Earning per Share was Rs.3.04.The gross profit for the nine month period ended March 31, 2005 was Rs.710.407 million and the profit after tax was Rs.184.513 million. 10,885 units were sold as compared to 7994 units during the same period last year, thus showing 36 % increase. Santro and Shehzore remained major contributors to the increased sales volume. The earning per share was Rs.2.39 compared to Rs.1.51 for the previous year period. This is 58% higher than the corresponding period.
TECHNICAL ANALYSIS:
DEWAN MOTOR closed up at Rs.28.80. Volume was 490% above average (trending) and Bollinger Bands were 78% wider than normal. Short-term traders should pay closer attention to intraday levels while intermediate/long-term traders should place greater emphasis on the Bullish or Bearish trends. The share is currently 28.6% above its 200-period moving average and is in an upward trend. Volatility is high as compared to the average volatility over the last 10 periods. Our volume indicators reflect very strong flows of volume into Dewan Motor (bullish). Our trend forecasting oscillators are currently bullish on the share and have had this outlook for the last 21 periods. Our momentum oscillator is currently indicating that Dewan Motor is currently in an overbought condition. BUDGET 2005-2006In the budget 2005-2006 the Customs duty on cars from 1301cc-1500cc has been reduced from 70% to 50%, from 1500cc-1600cc decreased to 65% from 70% and, from 1601cc-1800cc reduced to 65% from 80% and the duty on cars with higher engine capacity has been slashed to 75% from 100%. A 6% with holding tax has been imposed on purchase of new cars. The impact of the budget is slightly negative on the Auto Sector but all loads shall conveniently be passed on to end users.
Blog By:
Saqib
msaqib9@hotmail.com
realities911@yahoogroups.com
Motorcycle Industry in Pakistan
Motorcycle Industry in Pakistan
The sale of motorcycles across the country has also witnessed an impressive growth over the past couple of years on the back of record production numbers. Sale of new motorcycles has risen to 450,000. In comparison, the sale of second-hand motorcycles has come down as customers seem more interested in brand new motorbikes, rather than going for a used one.
It may be mentioned here that every company has the official permission to produce and launch two of its products under one licence ie motorbike and auto-rickshaw.
The majority of the assemblers in the country are located in Lahore where 13 companies are engaged in assembling motorbikes. Some eight assemblers are located in Karachi, five are in Hyderabad and three are in Gujranwala. One assembler each is operating business in Mirpur, Peshawar, Gujrat, Muridke and Multan.
Experts in the motorcycle industry have said that five years back, only four companies were making motorcycles in the country. This situation now stands drastically changed thanks to the supportive policies of the government.
Another notable change is the increased market share of Chinese-made motorcycles in the Pakistani market. With the positive growth in this industry, prices of the motorcycles have also witnessed a notable decline. Over the past five years, prices of new motorcycles have fallen by some 30 per cent to 40 per cent.
"A 70cc motorcycle which was previously sold at Rs70,000 to Rs75,000, is now available at Rs35,000 to Rs52,000," said a dealer at Akbar Road market Karachi, one of the biggest motorcycle markets in the country.
The production of the motorbikes in the country has also jumped to 500,000 from 350,000, due to higher demand by the customers.
The increase in the demand of new motorcycles in the country is also due to the cheap Chinese spare parts availability in the market.
"Shock absorbers of a Honda-made 70cc motorbike was available at Rs1,800. The same item in Chinese category can be purchased in Rs550," said Asad Farooq who has recently bought a China-made motorbike.
Market sources have said that the quality of Chinese auto parts second rate, but nevertheless, their sales have gained momentum as the purchasing power of a consumer is badly hit by the rising inflation.
Dealers said that the auto parts of China, Thailand and Malaysia are popular in the market. While some auto parts from Japan are being imported, but the share is still less in comparison with China.
Number of companies in the country who manufactured auto parts also soared considerably to 100 as compared to just 40 during the past four years.
It may be recalled that 20 years back, the import duty on Completely Built Unit (CBU) was 105 per cent. This has now been brought down to 90 per cent. However, licensed dealers can import auto parts at the rate of 25 per cent while the importer who imports the auto parts on a commercial basis has to pay the duty at the rate of 30 per cent.
According to details, Pak Hero Industries is assembling PH-70, PH-100 and PH-125, however, the same company is also assembling two-stroke and four-stroke auto rickshaws.
Similarly, Atlas Honda is assembling CD-70, CD-100 and CG-125, while Pakistan Cycle Industrial Cooperative Society Limited is assembling Sohrab JC-70 Plus, JS-125 motorbikes and a 100cc auto rickshaw.
Saigol’s Qingqi Motors Limited is assembling QM-70, QM-100 motorcycles and a 100cc Qingqi motorcycle auto rickshaw, whereas Excel Industries is assembling XL-70cc motorcycle and XL two-stroke auto rickshaw.
New Asia Automobiles is assembling NA-70 motorbike and four-stroke auto rickshaw, however, another company United Sales is assembling US-70 motorcycle and 100cc motorcycle auto rickshaw.
Meanwhile, Blue Star Automobile is assembling BS-70 motorbike and a two-stroke auto rickshaw, while the company Pacific Motor Company Limited is engaged in assembling Sprinter four-stroke auto rickshaw.
HKF Engineering (Pvt) Limited is assembling Ravi RA-70 motorcycle. The Sazgar Engineering Works Limited is assembling four-stroke auto rickshaw, while Star Asia and Zxmco Pakistan (Pvt) Limited are assembling four-stroke auto rickshaw and ZX-70cc motorcycle respectively.
Suzuki Motorcycle Pakistan Limited in Karachi is manufacturing and assembling A-100X, SC-110, GS-125, GS-150 motorcycles, while Dawood Yamaha Limited is engaged in assembling and manufacturing Yamaha Royale 3AH, YB-100 and YD-100 motorcycles.
Dewan Motorcycles Limited is assembling Star DS-70 and Lifan 70cc motorcycles besides Star four-stroke auto rickshaw, whereas Ahmed Automobile Company is assembling Safari SD-70 motorbike and Safari two-stroke auto rickshaw.
Furthermore, NJ Auto Industries is assembling Super Power SP-70 motorcycles, however, Sitara Auto Impex is engaged in assembling Gungta GT-70 motorcycle besides Shahabuddin Enterprises which is assembling Parwaz two-stroke auto rickshaw.
The AB Engineering (Pvt) Limited is assembling Laser 70cc motorcycles, while companies from Hyderabad, Memon Associates Foundry Limited, Raazi Motor Industries and Shafiq Sons are assembling two-stroke Super Star auto rickshaw, Hi Speed SR-70 motorcycles and Jinan JN-70cc motorcycles respectively.
Another company of Hyderabad, DS Motors is assembling Unique UD-70cc motorcycles, whereas Fateh Motors is assembling Hero RF-70cc motorcycles.
Gujranwala-based King Hero Motorcycle Industries is assembling King Hero KH-70 motorcycles and King Hero two-stroke auto rickshaw, while another company Super Asia Motors (Pvt) Limited is assembling Super Asia SA-70 motorcycles.
Another Lahore-based company, Toyo International Motorcycle is busy in assembling Toyo 70cc motorcycle.
A company of Muridke, Suleman Auto Industries is assembling Geo 70cc motorcycles, while another company of Gujrat Metro Hi-tech is assembling Metro MR-70cc motorcycles.
A company from Peshawar, Leena Industries is assembling Kharo 200cc auto rickshaw while another company of Mirpur, Eagle Industries is engaged in assembling Eagle DG-70cc motorcycles.
Raja Auto Cars is assembling Vespa scooter, Vespa auto rickshaw and Hawk RH-70cc motorcycles, whereas a company from Multan, Ali Raza Industries is assembling Royal Star RS-70cc motorcycles.
Blog By:
Saqib Aslam
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)